Obituary: Alexander Shulgin: The Man Who Synthesized MDMA [Ecstasy]

The Daily Beast reran the obituary for Alexander Shulgin that first ran in The Telegraph (UK). Here is a brief overview of his life from Wikipedia:

Alexander Theodore "Sasha" Shulgin (June 17, 1925 – June 2, 2014) was an American medicinal chemist, biochemist, pharmacologist, psychopharmacologist, and author. Shulgin is credited with introducing MDMA (also known as "ecstasy") to psychologists in the late 1970s for psychopharmaceutical use. He discovered, synthesized, and personally bioassayed over 230 psychoactive compounds, and evaluated them for their psychedelic and/or entactogenic potential.

In 1991 and 1997, he and his wife Ann Shulgin authored the books PIHKAL and TIHKAL (standing for Phenethylamines and Tryptamines I Have Known And Loved), which extensively described their work and personal experiences with these two classes of psychoactive drugs. Shulgin performed seminal work into the descriptive synthesis of many of these compounds. Some of Shulgin's noteworthy discoveries include compounds of the 2C* family (such as 2C-B) and compounds of the DOx family (such as DOM). Due in part to Shulgin's extensive work in the field of psychedelic research and the rational drug design of psychedelic drugs, he has since been dubbed the "godfather of psychedelics"

If any person has ever earned the title of psychonaut, it was Shulgin.

The Week in Death: Alexander Shulgrin, Who Synthesized the Drug Ecstasy

An American chemist known as the ‘Godfather of Psychedelics,’ Alexander Shulgin originally promoted the drug now known as Ecstasy as an aid to talk therapy.

The Daily Beast | 06.07.14

ALEXANDER SHULGIN, JUNE 17, 1925—JUNE 2, 2014  Alexander Shulgin, who has died aged 88, was an American chemist known as the “Godfather of Psychedelics.” In his psychopharmacological studies, Shulgin used himself as a guinea pig to analyze human reactions to more than 200 psychoactive compounds. His experiments most famously introduced the empathogenic drug MDMA into the popular consciousness—under its street name, Ecstasy.

MDMA—known chemically as 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine but by Shulgin as a “low-calorie martini”—had originally been created as a blood-clotting agent in 1912. In the mid-‘70s, however, Shulgin synthesised (artificially concocted) the drug and took it himself, noting its beneficial effects on human empathy and compassion. Effectively Shulgin had created a “love drug.”

“I feel absolutely clean inside, and there is nothing but pure euphoria,” wrote Shulgin in his journals. “The cleanliness, clarity, and marvelous feeling of solid inner strength continued through the next day. I am overcome by the profundity of the experience.”

Shulgin and his friend Leo Zeff, a psychologist from California, promoted MDMA across America to hundreds of psychologists and therapists as an aid to talk therapy. One of those therapists who embraced the drug was the lay Jungian psychoanalyst Ann Gotlieb, who met Shulgin in 1979. The pair bonded over their interest in mind-altering substances and married two years later.

Alexander Theodore Shulgin (often known as Sasha) was born on June 17, 1925 in Berkeley, California. Both his parents were schoolteachers in Alameda County. Shulgin studied organic chemistry at Harvard as a scholarship student but dropped out in 1943 to join the U.S. Navy, and while serving during World War II he became interested in psychopharmacology. Prior to having surgery for a thumb infection he was handed a glass of orange juice, and, assuming that the crystals at the bottom of the glass were a sedative, he drank it and fell asleep. After the surgery he discovered that he had simply drunk fruit juice with added sugar and he had been given a placebo. He was, he said, amazed that “a fraction of a gram of sugar had rendered [him] unconscious.”

On leaving the Navy, Shulgin returned to Berkeley, where he earned a Ph.D. in biochemistry. He continued with postdoctoral work in psychiatry and pharmacology at the University of California before working in industry, first at Bio-Rad Laboratories and then as a senior research chemist at Dow Chemicals.

At Dow, he first started experimenting with mescaline. In the late ’60s he left the company to spend two years studying neurology at the University of California School of Medicine in San Francisco. He then built a lab—known as “the Farm”—behind his house and became an independent consultant.

During this period he developed ties with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), giving seminars to agents on pharmacology and providing expert testimony in court. The administration granted him a licence for his analytical experiments, allowing him to synthesise illegal drugs.

Shulgin tested on himself hundreds of psychoactive chemicals, one of which was MDMA—the “emotional and sensual overtones” of which he soon extolled. He had first synthesised the drug in 1965, but took it himself only a decade later after an undergraduate from San Francisco State University described its effects.

The MDMA trials with therapists led Shulgin to Ann Gotlieb, whose father had been New Zealand’s consul to Trieste before World War II. The couple married in their back garden in a ceremony conducted by a DEA officer.

The benefits and dangers of MDMA have long been debated (it was made illegal in Britain in 1977 and in the U.S. in 1985). The debate accelerated as the drug was rebranded, and often dangerously recut, during the ’80s and ’90s to become the colourful little tablets known as Ecstasy, Molly, or simply “E.” For partygoers in raves across New York, London, and Ibiza, the drug was to become a byword for the elevations and crises inherent in clubbing.

Shulgin, however, maintained that the drug could help patients overcome trauma or debilitating guilt. He conceded that there had been “a hint of snake-oil” to its initial promotion, but insisted that it remained “an incredible tool.” He liked to quote a psychiatrist who described MDMA as “penicillin for the soul.”

Shulgin wrote hundreds of papers on his findings and several books, including the bestseller PIHKAL: A Chemical Love Story (1991), which he authored with his wife; the acronym stood for Phenethylamines I Have Known And Loved. A sequel, TIHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known And Loved), followed two years later. “It is our opinion that those books are pretty much cookbooks on how to make illegal drugs,” said a spokesman for San Francisco’s division of the DEA. “Agents tell me that in clandestine labs that they have raided, they have found copies.”

Alexander Shulgin is survived by his wife.

Alexander Shulgin, June 17, 1925—June 2, 2014

Ecstasy (MDMA), Empathy, and Oxytocin

 

New research published in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology looked at the suspected relationship between MDMA (ecstasy) and oxytocin. The prevailing thought was that the prosocial and empathic effects of MDMA result from stimulation of oxytocin release.

It turned out not to be so clear-cut:

MDMA increased euphoria and feelings of sociability, perhaps by reducing sensitivity to subtle signs of negative emotions in others. The present findings provide only limited support for the idea that oxytocin produces the prosocial effects of MDMA.

Interesting and important research, and it is unfortunately sequestered behind a paywall.

Despite these findings, we still need further research into the use of MDMA as an adjunct to psychotherapy, especially in those with anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress. Previous studies have found specific prosocial effects of MDMA administration, as well as dampening responses to negative emotions/images (see here [abstract only] and here [full article]).

Below is a summary of the research from Neuroscientifically Challenged, followed by the abstract from the study.

Ecstasy and oxytocin

May 24, 2014



Although the drug methylenedioxymethamphetamine, better known as MDMA or ecstasy, is often lumped into the category of hallucinogens, it has a unique set of effects that make it very distinct from other drugs in this class. Specifically, along with creating a positive mood state and reducing anxiety, MDMA is known for fostering strong feelings of empathy and compassion.

In some ways, MDMA appears to act on the brain in a manner similar to other amphetamines. Specifically, it is taken up into neurons and promotes the release of neurotransmitters like serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. This excess neurotransmitter release is associated with alertness and a positive mood, along with the desire to continue using the drug. But the mechanism underlying MDMA's ability to create feelings of empathy is still somewhat unclear.

Some have suggested that enhanced compassion during MDMA use is due to increased release of oxytocin, a hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus. In addition to its roles in childbirth and breastfeeding, oxytocin has been dubbed "the love hormone" because it seems to increase trust, promote social bonding, and foster compassion.

In a study published this month in Nature Neuropsychopharmacology, researchers compared the effects of MDMA and oxytocin (in the form of a nasal spray) to see how similar they really are. Over a series of 4 sessions they gave MDMA, oxytocin, or placebo to a group of 65 MDMA users and then administered a series of tests to determine the overlap between the effects of MDMA and oxytocin.

They found that MDMA caused users to report feeling friendlier, more insightful, and more likely to enjoy social interaction. Interestingly, it also increased feelings of anxiety (perhaps because the participants were forced to experience the drug alone and it is a drug that increases the desire for social affiliation). On a task where participants were asked to identify angry, fearful, happy, or sad emotions in computer-generated faces, MDMA decreased the ability to recognize anger or fear. Thus, the effects of MDMA corresponded to what has been seen before in that it generally promoted positive feelings, sociability, and a decreased awareness of negative emotions in others.

The effects of intranasal oxytocin, however, were more ambiguous. It mildly increased reports of positive feelings, only impaired the identification of emotion in faces when it came to recognizing sadness (and this effect was only seen in female participants), and didn't influence the desire to socialize. Also, while the effects of MDMA increased with dose, the effects of oxytocin were inconsistent, with some effects being increased at the lower dose and reduced at the higher dose.

Overall, MDMA and oxytocin administration didn't result in similar effects in this study. One major shortcoming of the study was that the experiments were conducted with previous users of MDMA; a previous history of MDMA use certainly could have influenced the experience participants had with MDMA administration (and with oxytocin administration if there really are similarities between the two). However, there is also a lot we do not know about oxytocin and its effects on empathy and sociability. Whenever we give a moniker like "the love hormone" to something like a hormone or neurotransmitter we are chagrined to realize some years later that the actions of that substance are far too complex to preferentially attribute one function to it. The same may be true for oxytocin.

Full Citation:
Kirkpatrick, M., Lee, R., Wardle, M., Jacob, S., & de Wit, H. (2014. Jan 22). Effects of MDMA and Intranasal Oxytocin on Social and Emotional Processing. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39 (7), 1654-1663 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.12

Abstract:

MDMA (±3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, ‘ecstasy’) is used recreationally, reportedly because it increases feelings of empathy, sociability, and interpersonal closeness. One line of evidence suggests that MDMA produces these effects by releasing oxytocin, a peptide involved in social bonding. In the current study, we investigated the acute effects of MDMA and oxytocin on social and emotional processing in healthy human volunteers. MDMA users (N=65) participated in a 4-session, within-between-subjects study in which they received oral MDMA (0.75, 1.5 mg/kg), intranasal oxytocin (20 or 40 IU), or placebo under double-blind conditions. The primary outcomes included measures of emotion recognition and sociability (desire to be with others). Cardiovascular and subjective effects were also assessed. As expected, MDMA dose-dependently increased heart rate and blood pressure and feelings of euphoria (eg, ‘High’ and ‘Like Drug’). On measures of social function, MDMA impaired recognition of angry and fearful facial expressions, and the larger dose (1.5 mg/kg) increased desire to be with others, compared with placebo. Oxytocin produced small but significant increases in feelings of sociability and enhanced recognition of sad facial expressions. Additionally, responses to oxytocin were related to responses to MDMA with subjects on two subjective measures of sociability. Thus, MDMA increased euphoria and feelings of sociability, perhaps by reducing sensitivity to subtle signs of negative emotions in others. The present findings provide only limited support for the idea that oxytocin produces the prosocial effects of MDMA.

Exploring Therapeutic Effects of MDMA on Post-Traumatic Stress (LA Times)

It's nice to see a major paper like the Los Angeles Times covering the developments in using MDMA (Ecstasy) for post-traumatic stress and other anxiety disorders. This is NOT new research, despite the way these stories are typically run. There has been research underway since the late 1990s, which was curtailed considerably during the Bush presidency and has been supported much more by the Obama administration.

Here are some resources on the use of MDMA for anxiety disorders like PTSD:

• A randomized, controlled pilot study of MDMA (±3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of resistant, chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (2012)
• How could MDMA (ecstasy) help anxiety disorders? A neurobiological rationale (2009)
• The psychotherapeutic potential of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): an evidence-based review (2007)
• A Clinical Plan for MDMA (Ecstasy) in the Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Partnering with the FDA (2002)

There have not been any serious negative results in the literature. The only real concern seems to be the serotonin depletion in the days following use of MDMA, but that can be ameliorated with 300-600 mgs of alpha lipoic acid an hour or so before taking the MDMA.

I would love to be able to use this with some of my clients.

Exploring therapeutic effects of MDMA on post-traumatic stress

Researchers and some independent therapists are studying whether banned drug MDMA — found in Ecstasy — may help those with PTSD.

By Alan Zarembo
March 15, 2014

MDMA, the active ingredient in the illegal party drug Ecstasy, is currently being studied in a series of clinical trials to see if the drug's ability to strip away defensiveness and increase trust can boost the effectiveness of psychotherapy.

It costs about $2,000 to buy an ounce of the illegal drug, the therapist said — enough for roughly 150 doses. She pays her longtime dealer in cash; he gives her a Ziploc bag of white powder.

Back home, she scoops the contents into clear capsules. She calls it "the medicine"; others know it as MDMA, the active ingredient in the party drug Ecstasy.

MDMA has been banned by the federal government since 1985 as a dangerous recreational drug with no medical value. But interest is rising in its potential to help people suffering from psychiatric or emotional problems.

A loose-knit underground community of psychologists, counselors and healers has been administering the drug to patients — an act that could cost them their careers.

"I do what is morally right," said the therapist, who lives in Northern California and did not want to be identified. "If I have the tools to help, it is my responsibility to help."

A series of clinical trials approved by federal drug authorities is now underway to see if the drug's ability to strip away defensiveness and increase trust can boost the effectiveness of psychotherapy.

One of the key studies focuses on MDMA's effect on military veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder.

Farris Tuma, head of traumatic stress research at the National Institute of Mental Health, said he's skeptical because there is no plausible theory so far about how the drug's biochemical effects on the brain could improve therapy.

"They're a long way between where they are now and this becoming a standard clinical practice," he said.

A surge in Ecstasy-related deaths at raves has reinforced the compound's destructive reputation.

But some of those who have given MDMA to patients are optimistic.

The therapist said she became a believer in the late 1980s after it helped her deal with her own trauma. She has since conducted roughly 1,500 sessions with patients, leading them on four-hour explorations of their feelings.

She uses only the purest MDMA — in contrast to street Ecstasy, which is typically contaminated — and none of her patients has ever experienced an adverse event, she said.

The therapist said she knows roughly 60 professionals in her region who use MDMA in their practices — and the number is growing.

"We are responsible therapists doing respectable work," she said.

::

MDMA — or 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine — was first synthesized a century ago by chemists at Merck & Co. Inc., which patented it as a precursor to a blood-clotting medication.

Toxicity experiments secretly conducted for the U.S. Army and later declassified have fueled speculation that the military was interested in MDMA in the 1950s as a chemical weapon or truth serum.

Then in 1976, Alexander Shulgin, a former Dow Chemical Co. researcher who devoted his life to research and self-experimentation with psychedelic drugs, synthesized MDMA and tried it.

"I have never felt so great, or believed this to be possible," he later wrote about the experience. "The cleanliness, clarity, and marvelous feeling of solid inner strength continued through the rest of the day, and evening, and into the next day."

The following year he gave the drug to Oakland psychologist Leo Zeff, who was so impressed that he came out of retirement and began introducing it to therapists across the country.

By some estimates, as many as 4,000 therapists were using MDMA in their practices before federal authorities banned the drug.

"We lost a major tool that was really growing," said Dr. Phil Wolfson, a San Francisco psychiatrist who used the drug in his practice when it was legal.

MDMA's chemical mechanism remains unexplained beyond the broad effect of raising levels of serotonin and oxytocin — brain chemicals related to well-being and social bonding — and triggering the amygdala, a region of the brain involved in processing memory and emotion.

Therapists say MDMA can put patients in an emotional sweet spot that allows them to engage difficult feelings and memories.

Bob Walker, a 69-year-old Vietnam veteran from Chico, tried Ecstasy on his own after hearing it was being used to treat PTSD.

A few weeks after his first Ecstasy trip, he took it again and had his girlfriend drive him to a therapy appointment. His therapist had no experience with the drug but had agreed to the session.

Walker said the experience released him from haunting images of seeing a friend killed in a helicopter crash and watching a young Vietnamese boy die in a truck accident. "I didn't lose any memory of what happened," he said. "I lost the anxiety."

The therapist, who did not want to be identified, said Walker seemed to open up. "This barrier that had been there was suddenly gone," she said.

Despite worries that she was risking her career, she agreed to conduct two more three-hour sessions over the next several months.

"Once his soul was open, it didn't fully close again," she said. "Each time, I feel that he was closer to his truest nature."

Tim Amoroso, a 24-year-old Army veteran, was tormented by memories of looking for body parts after a suicide bomber killed five U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan. He said antidepressants and anti-anxiety pills prescribed by doctors at the VA provided little relief.

Now a student at the University of New Hampshire, Amoroso bought Ecstasy at a music festival last summer and later took the drug with a friend watching over him.

"I feel like I found meaning again," Amoroso said. "My life wasn't as bad as I thought it was."

::

The new research into MDMA's therapeutic potential largely stems from the efforts of Rick Doblin, a former hippie who earned a doctorate in public policy at Harvard University to help his quest for drug legalization.

Doblin's nonprofit Multidisciplinary Assn. for Psychedelic Studies, which runs on donations, has sponsored all research into clinical uses of MDMA. Doblin hopes the drug follows the same path as marijuana, whose approval for medical purposes led to broad public acceptance.

In 2004, South Carolina psychiatrist Michael Mithoefer launched a clinical trial involving 20 patients suffering from PTSD — mostly female victims of sexual violence who had unsuccessfully tried other therapies.

Ten of the 12 who received MDMA during two sessions improved so much that they no longer qualified for a PTSD diagnosis. Patients who received a placebo fared worse. A follow-up study published in 2012 found that, for the most part, the patients who improved continued to do well.

Mithoefer is now conducting a study looking at whether MDMA has a similar effect on veterans, firefighters and police officers afflicted with PTSD.

One participant is a 57-year-old retired Army major who has struggled with memories of a young soldier killed in an ambush in Iraq. The major hadn't been able to talk much about it in earlier sessions without the drug.

"The kid, he'd shown me pictures of his young kids and wife and all that," the soldier said in a videotaped therapy session. "To get to know someone and trust him, and now you know he's dead — it's tough."

In subsequent testing, the severity of the major's PTSD declined, the researchers said. The study's full results on 24 subjects are expected late next year.

Among other studies, a trial set to begin at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center will test MDMA's ability to combat social anxiety in high-functioning autistic adults. Bay Area researchers also are planning to conduct a study of whether MDMA can reduce anxiety in patients facing deadly illnesses.

Experts not involved in trials said they haven't seen enough data to draw conclusions. They noted that in a Swiss study funded by Doblin's group, the drug did not significantly reduce symptoms of PTSD.

With a budget of $2 million a year, Doblin's group doesn't have the money to pay for the wide-scale trials needed for scientific clarity and FDA approval. His hope is that the government will step in with funding.

Doblin has met with officials at the Pentagon and the Department of Veterans Affairs, but so far the government has kept its distance.

"Ecstasy is an illegal drug and [the] VA would not involve veterans in the use of such substances," a spokesman said in an email.

alan.zarembo@latimes.com

Special correspondent L.J. Williamson contributed to this report.

Psychedelic Drugs: Harmful or Therapeutic? (Al Jazeera English)

On Al Jazeera's The Stream, there was a recent conversation on the risks and/or benefits of using psychedelic drugs (entheogens or hallucinogens) as therapeutics for mental health issues. Among the guests was Rick Doblin, Founder and Executive Director of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS).

Also included was Dr. David Nutt, the former chairman of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) in England (a position from which he was dismissed due to his support of medicinal use of some "recreational" drugs) and current Chair of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs.

For most thinking people, especially those who have experienced entheogens, these are drugs that offer much more benefit than harm - but the government has a vested interest in rejecting the freedom to experience alternate states of consciousness, especially when those states can wake people up from the consensus trance.

Psychedelic drugs: harmful or therapeutic?

The Stream looks at the risks and benefits of these drugs on mental health.

Ecstasy pills in hand. (UIG via GETTY)

Have we lost decades of research on mental health disease because of legal controls on psychedelic drugs? Some scientists claim LSD and MDMA hold the key to treating illnesses like schizophrenia and depression, and are calling for an end to the restrictions on working with them. Others though, say they are too risky to experiment with and the long term dangers are not known. We will speak to experts who argue both sides. Join us at 19:30 GMT.

In this episode of The Stream, we speak with:

Bertha Madras @harvardmed
Professor of Psychobiology at Harvard Medical School
hms.harvard.edu

David Nutt @ProfDavidNutt
Chair of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs
drugscience.org.uk

Rick Doblin @RickDoblin
Founder and Executive Director of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS)

Rachel Hope
Writer

What do you think? Leave your thoughts in the comments section.

* * * * *

Here is some of the background information provided at the Al Jazeera site.

From LSD to MDMA, a recent editorial published by Scientific American has ignited a heated discussion regarding the research of psychoactive drugs. The article calls on the US government to "end the ban on psychoactive drug research". It goes on to say:

scientificamerican.com

New thinking is desperately needed to aid the estimated 14 million American adults who suffer from severe mental illness. Innovation would likely accelerate if pharmacologists did not have to confront an antiquated legal framework that, in effect, declares off-limits a set of familiar compounds that could potentially serve as the chemical basis for entire new classes of drugs.

The editors believe that by making it easier to do research on drugs like MDMA (a compound found in ecstasy) and LSD, scientists can explore whether these drugs can help with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cluster headaches, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and schizophrenia.

Netizens had a mixed response to Scientific American's article:

Jordan Ray Johnston
It's great to see a mainstream scientific journal getting behind this. The research of the 60's should never have been stopped. However.... dope is a term originally used to talk about heroin. Tis sad that it's used so indiscriminately now.
18 days ago

facebook.com
while I earnestly believe the FDA is much too conservative with their rulings, I stand behind them when they ban psychoactive drugs from being medicinal. I used to pride myself on my above average mental constitution and ability to handle psychedelic drugs, but I can tell you from personal experience, and from the experience of witnessing other users, that those drugs are bound to make psychiatric disorders much worse (even if the response is delayed).
5 days ago

Many scientists agree that more research needs to be done on these drugs, but some argue that Scientific American's article is misleading. "While the stigma that comes from Schedule I placement of these substances makes scientific research clearance and fundraising difficult, research itself is not prohibited", writes April Short on AlterNet.org.

In 1970, the US government passed the Controlled Substances Act. The legislation classifies drugs into one of three categories, Schedules I, II, III. Schedule I includes drugs that meet the following criteria:

fda.gov
(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse. (B) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. (C) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.
5 days ago

deamuseum.org
5 days ago

The Controlled Substances Act does not explicitly prohibit the research of Schedule I drugs, but there are several guidelines for gaining approval to do research. The United Nations also has three treaties, including the The Convention of Psychotropic Substances that similarly classify these types of drugs.

A blog by David Nutt, a psychopharmacologist at the Imperial College London, echos Scientific American's call to end the restrictions on the research of Schedule I drugs:

drugscience.org.uk
Drugs get sucked into the black hole of Schedule 1 all too easily, but no evidence of medical value seems enough to get them out. We need to resist the scary fairy-tale that removing drugs such as cannabis from Schedule 1, or reforming the Regulations, will open a Pandora’s box. There’s much more reason to believe that we’ll unleash a Neuroscientific Enlightenment, making new discoveries about the brain and consciousness, developing new treatments for debilitating disorders like PTSD, depression and chronic pain, and giving a boost to our economy along the way.
5 days ago

Some online agree:

facebook.com
The ban on psychedelic drugs makes research into the therapeutic benefits virtually impossible. This is effectively one of the biggest cases on science ever. Many diseases can be cured and many lives can be saved if we abolish drug prohibition and introduce sendible regulation
4 days ago

A few recent studies have examined the use of these types of drugs. The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), is currently studying the effect of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy on healing psychological and emotional damage from war, violent crimes and other traumas. In the video below, participants and therapists describe the MAPS study:

Healing Trauma in Veterans with MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy
mapsmdma
3 months ago

Online, some said they would take psychoactive drugs to treat disorders like PTSD and schizophrenia:

PoliticallyQuestiond

@AJStream Cannabis is essential for my and others' PTSD and safe. Risks of this and other needed drugs are introduced by criminalization...

Mohammed A. Elshafie

@AJStream Yes, but with a good understanding of the risks and excellence analysis on how to minimize it.

12 Feb 2014

Jennifer Huizen

@AJStream The extent these type of disorders disrupt the lives of those affected makes chances, maybe even risky ones, worth taking.

12 Feb 2014

Others, however, feel it may be too risky:

El_vii_diego

@AJStream #no you cant take a psychoactive drug to treat a disorder like #PTSD because the potential wont outweigh the potential risks but

12 Feb 2014

El_vii_diego

@AJStream #but it will rather increase the risks of the decease eg like #PTSD

12 Feb 2014

Richard Miller - Religion as a Product of Psychotropic Drug Use (The Atlantic)

This article is excerpted from Drugged: The Science and Culture Behind Psychotropic Drugs by Richard Miller. He offers here a very surface level look at the possible influence of entheogens on religion.

From The Atlantic.

Religion as a Product of Psychotropic Drug Use

How much of religious history was influenced by mind-altering substances?

Richard J. Miller Dec 27 2013


The notion that hallucinogenic drugs played a significant part in the development of religion has been extensively discussed, particularly since the middle of the twentieth century. Various ideas of this type have been collected into what has become known as the entheogen theory. The word entheogen is a neologism coined in 1979 by a group of ethnobotanists (those that study the relationship between people and plants). The literal meaning of entheogen is "that which causes God to be within an individual" and might be considered as a more accurate and academic term for popular terms such as hallucinogen or psychedelic drug. By the term entheogen we understand the use of psychoactive substances for religious or spiritual reasons rather than for purely recreational purposes.

Perhaps one of the first things to consider is whether there is any direct evidence for the entheogenic theory of religion which derives from contemporary science. One famous example that has been widely discussed is the Marsh Chapel experiment. This experiment was run by the Harvard Psilocybin Project in the early 1960s, a research project spearheaded by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert. Leary had traveled to Mexico in 1960, where he had been introduced to the effects of hallucinogenic psilocybin-containing mushrooms and was anxious to explore the implications of the drug for psychological research. What is the true identity of the drug used by the gods in the Hindu Vedas, or the "drug of forgetfulness" in The Odyssey?

On Good Friday 1962, two groups of students received either psilocybin or niacin (a nonhallucinogenic "control" substance) on a double-blind basis prior to the service in Boston University's Marsh Chapel. Following the service nearly the entire group receiving psilocybin reported having had a profound religious experience, compared to just a few in the control group. This result was therefore judged to have supported the entheogenic potential of hallucinogenic drug use. Interestingly, the experiment has subsequently been repeated under somewhat different and arguably better controlled circumstances and the results were substantially the same.

***

It may be easy for some to accept the idea that entheogenic substances played a role in the genesis of religion. However, when we move from generalities to specifics we are on less firm ground. There has been a great deal of speculation concerning the actual identity of drugs used for religious purposes in the ancient world. For example, what is the true identity of the drug soma used by the gods in the ancient Hindu Vedas? Or the identity of nepenthe, the "drug of forgetfulness" mentioned in The Odyssey? Although it is impossible to answer such questions in a definitive scientific sense, one can speculate about the various possibilities.

For example, consider the work of R. Gordon Wasson and the story of Amanita muscaria, the "fly agaric"—certainly the world's most famous mushroom. Wasson made several journeys to Mexico to research the Mazatec people and write about the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms in their ancient rituals, but his experiences there led him to tackle a different subject—the identity of the drug soma.

To understand the significance of soma one must consider some of the oldest religious texts known to man. These are the ancient Vedas, Sanskrit texts that represent the oldest Hindu scriptures. The most ancient of these texts—the Rigveda, a collection of over a thousand hymns—was compiled in northern India around 1500 BC. A parallel but slightly later development in ancient Persia was the composition of the religious texts of Zoroastrianism, the Avesta. People who understood the identity of the plant soma could use it to empower themselves and to communicate more effectively with the deities.

In both the Rigveda and the Avesta there is frequent mention of soma (or haoma in the Avesta). In these episodes soma is described as a plant from which a drink or potion could be produced that was consumed by the gods, giving them fantastic powers which aided them in their supernatural feats. People who understood the identity of the plant soma could use it to empower themselves and to communicate more effectively with the deities.

Consider the following from the Rigveda:

We have drunk Soma and become immortal; we have attained the light, the
Gods discovered.
Now what may foeman's malice do to harm us? What, O Immortal, mortal man's deception?

Or:

Heaven above does not equal one half of me.
Have I been drinking Soma?
In my glory I have passed beyond earth and sky.
Have I been drinking Soma?
I will pick up the earth and put it here or there.
Have I been drinking Soma?

But what actually was soma? There were suggestions that it was ephedra or possibly cannabis, but Gordon Wasson concluded that it was Amanita muscaria. Amanita muscaria or the "fly agaric" is a large mushroom that is instantly recognizable. This is due to its strikingly attractive appearance and its wide use in popular culture. It has often appeared in animated films (such as the Nutcracker scene in Fantasia, or in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs), as well as being used in numerous types of kitschy household products and for illustrations in children's stories.

There are numerous details provided in the Rigveda suggesting how soma was prepared and used, which Wasson interpreted as indicating that Amanita muscaria was the true source of the drug. However, the most interesting and influential evidence that he considered originates from reports concerning the use of Amanita muscaria in the eighteenth century. In particular, in 1736 a Swedish colonel named Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published an account of the behavior of the Koryak people living in the Kamchatka region of Siberia. Von Strahlenberg had fought in the Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia, was captured by the Russians, and was incarcerated for twelve years. It was observed that the drinking of drug-containing urine could continue for up to five cycles passing from one individual to another before the urine lost its capacity for intoxication.

Among other things he described the use of Amanita muscaria as an intoxicant by the local people. He also noted the following unusual behavior: "The poorer Sort, who cannot afford to lay in a Store of these Mushrooms, post themselves, on these Ocassions, round the Huts of the Rich, and watch the Opportunity of the Guests coming down to make Water; And then hold a Wooden Bowl to receive the Urine, which they drink off greedily, as having still some Virtue of the Mushroom in it, and by this way they also get Drunk."

Von Strahlenberg's observations on urine drinking and other behaviors were considered extremely sensational when they were published in Stockholm and soon thereafter in other parts of Europe. Indeed, they were used to satirical effect in the writings of the English playwright and novelist Oliver Goldsmith who imagined the consequences of introducing such habits into London society. The use of Amanita muscaria by numerous Siberian tribes, as well as their habit of urine drinking to conserve the mushrooms' effects, was subsequently confirmed by other numerous travelers over the years.

Several 18th-and-19th-century reports described the use of Amanita muscaria by different Siberian tribes, and particularly by witch doctors or shamans who used it to achieve "an exalted state to be able to talk to the gods." Interestingly, it was observed that the drinking of drug-containing urine could continue for up to five cycles passing from one individual to another before the urine lost its capacity for intoxication. This was apparently often done because of the relative scarcity of the mushroom, and so preserving its hallucinogenic properties in this way had important practical benefits.

The use of hallucinogenic mushrooms, presumably Amanita muscaria, by the inhabitants of Siberia appears to be a very ancient practice. This is suggested by the discovery of several Stone or Bronze Age rock carvings (petroglyphs) in 1967 in northern Siberia near the Arctic Ocean. These seem to represent mushrooms and women with mushrooms growing out of their heads. This is an area inhabited by the Chukchi people, who were one of the subjects of the 18th-and 19th-century reports on Siberian mushroom use, so it may be supposed that they had used mushrooms continuously over many years. Indeed, the use of Amanita muscaria for its hallucinogenic actions continues in Siberia to this day, in spite of attempts by the previous communist government to stamp it out by resorting to measures such as dropping shamans out of helicopters. 

 

The precise psychological effects produced by Amanita muscaria are reported to vary a great deal depending on the individual and the social context. However, one interesting property noted in these early reports was a tendency to disturb the scale of visual perceptions so that a tiny crack in the ground might appear like a giant chasm. In particular, this was noted by the British mycologist and writer Mordecai Cubitt Cooke. Although he was responsible for writing books with riveting titles such as Rust, Smut, Mildew and Mold, Cooke also wrote one of the earliest books on psychotropic drugs, The Seven Sisters of Sleep, in which he described some of the properties of tobacco, opium, hashish, betel, coca, belladonna, and the fly agaric. Such books and observations were widely read and discussed in Victorian society. One story is that the book was read by the Reverend Charles Dodgson—better known to the world as Lewis Carroll—and so appeared as the mushroom which Alice could eat to alter her size at will in Alice in Wonderland.

***

The influence of Wasson’s writing can be seen in the subsequent development of an entire sub-genre of entheogenic literature, much of which has little to recommend it from a scholarly point of view. The idea is that if Amanita muscaria is identical with soma, which had a strong influence on the development of Hinduism, then why not every other religion as well?

Pride of place here goes to John Marco Allegro's 1970 publication, The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross. Allegro considered the possibility that ancient peoples would have been particularly concerned with two things—procreation and the supply of food. He suggested that they may have viewed rain as a type of heavenly semen that then impregnated the earth, allowing the growth of crops and the success of the harvest. Plants absorbed this holy semen—and some plants more than others. Amanita muscaria was such a plant that, when consumed, allowed a person to commune more closely with God. According to Allegro, the Bible is really just a series of myths that describe the secrets of the Amanita muscaria fertility cult rather than real people.

Allegro also suggested that the information concerning the use of Amanita muscaria as a religious fertility sacrament was subject to great secrecy, the provenance of a priestly sect. He speculated that these practices developed very early on in human history, even prior to the time when writing first came into existence during the ancient Sumerian civilization. He further suggested that the existence of the mushroom was secretly encoded in the use of particular Sumerian word roots.

This secret encoding of the mushroom fertility cult down through the ages eventually led to the development of the concept of Jesus to encapsulate the identity of Amanita muscaria around the time of the sacking of the second temple by the Romans. Thus, according to Allegro, Jesus never actually existed. He purported to demonstrate, using philological analysis of the structure of the ancient Sumerian language, that the name Jesus actually meant something along the lines of "semen" and that Christ meant something like "giant erect mushroom penis." According to Allegro, the Bible (and the New Testament in particular) is really just a series of myths that describe the secrets of the Amanita muscaria fertility cult rather than real people.

However, as fate would have it the stories caught on in a big way and their mythical origins were forgotten. The "Jesus myth" rapidly spread and became Christianity. Although Allegro's reasoning was mostly philological, he did occasionally refer to the other types of evidence such as the famous fresco in the Abbaye de Plaincourault in France that appears to show Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden with the serpent coiled around a giant Amanita muscaria. It was reasoned that this fresco, painted around 1290, gives credence to the idea that the secret mushroom fertility cult was still in existence in the Middle Ages.

Allegro's hypotheses were very interesting and his arguments were certainly consistent. However, they were not well received. Many Christians took exception to the fact that he believed that Jesus never existed and was really just a code word for a giant phallus-shaped magic mushroom. Allegro was generally excoriated in the press and in many academic circles. Nevertheless, his work did strike a chord with some individuals and many subsequent publications have endeavored to describe the role of Amanita muscaria in the genesis of virtually every religion known to man.


~ This post is adapted from Drugged: The Science and Culture Behind Psychotropic Drugs.

Rick Doblin [MAPS] - 10 Best Answers to Questions About Using Psychedelics

Recently, Rick Doblin, founder of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) answered questions on reddit on MDMA, LSD, and other psychoactive drugs. Here is his introduction to the Q and A:

Hey reddit! I am Rick Doblin, Ph.D., Founder and Executive Director of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS). Founded in 1986, MAPS is a 501(c)(3) non-profit research and educational organization that develops medical, legal, and cultural contexts for people to benefit from the careful uses of psychedelics and marijuana.

The staff of MAPS and I are here to answer your questions about:

• Scientific research into MDMA, LSD, psilocybin, ayahuasca, ibogaine, and marijuana
• The role of psychedelics and marijuana in science, medicine, therapy, spirituality, culture, and policy
• Reducing the risks associated with the non-medical use of various drugs by providing education and harm reduction services
• How to effectively communicate about psychedelics at your dinner table
• and anything else!

Our currently most promising research focuses on treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.

This is who we have participating today from MAPS:

• Rick Doblin, Ph.D., Founder and Executive Director
• Brad Burge, Director of Communications and Marketing
• Amy Emerson, Director of Clinical Research
• Virginia Wright, Director of Development
• Brian Brown, Communications and Marketing Associate
• Kynthia Brunette, Operations Associate
• Tess Goodwin, Development Assistant
• Ilsa Jerome, Ph.D., Research and Information Specialist
• Bryce Montgomery, Web and Multimedia Associate
• Linnae Ponté, Zendo Project Harm Reduction Coordinator
• Berra Yazar-Klosinski, Ph.D., Lead Clinical Research Associate

Alternet collected 10 of the most interesting questions for your entertainment.

10 Best Answers to Questions About Using Psychedelics

December 4, 2013 | By April M. Short

"LSD is like dreaming—it’s not uniform content, it’s a way of processing content," and other fascinating insights came out of this "Ask Me Anything" session.

Photo Credit: Shutterstock.com/Spectral-Design

Rick Doblin—founder and executive director of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), appeared on Reddit’s AMA feature (Ask Me Anything) to openly answer questions along with a team of 10 from MAPS on December 3.

For those who are unfamiliar, AMA is like the town hall meeting of the digital age, providing a chance for anyone to ask about anything and, if the comment is promoted by other users to the top of the pile, they will receive a response. When President Obama made a surprise AMA appearance as part of his 2012 campaign efforts, he was bombarded with so many questions the flood of traffic momentarily took down the site.

In Doblin’s introduction to the AMA session he described MAPS as a 501(c)(3) non-profit research and educational organization that develops medical, legal, and cultural contexts for people to benefit from the careful uses of psychedelics and marijuana. Then, he noted that the staff could answer any questions about:

• Scientific research into MDMA, LSD, psilocybin, ayahuasca, ibogaine, and marijuana;
• The role of psychedelics and marijuana in science, medicine, therapy, spirituality, culture, and policy;
• Reducing the risks associated with the non-medical use of various drugs by providing education and harm reduction services;
• How to effectively communicate about psychedelics at your dinner table;
• and anything else!

Doblin also noted that currently the most promising research at MAPS focuses on treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.

The MAPS team was inundated with more than 2,000 questions and had responded to more than 75 by publishing time (2:30pm, December 4).

According to Brad Burge, director of communications and marketing for MAPS, the team will continue to answer questions through the end of the week as long as there is interest—and they may even decide to continue answering questions indefinitely.

"Educating the public honestly about psychedelics and marijuana is a core part of our mission," he said. "This is one of the most exciting and inspiring parts of what we do: interacting with people who are actively trying to broaden their perspective about the risks and therapeutic benefits of psychedelics and marijuana.“

Here are ten of the most fascinating questions and answers to come out of the AMA:

1. Question from luttnugs: Is it possible for people to have completely different reactions/symptoms from the same psychedelic? Say hypothetically I eat mushrooms and my friend eats the same amount of said mushrooms. Should we experience similar symptoms or is it possible that genetics could lead to completely different reactions?

Answer from Rick Doblin:

Yes. The beauty of psychedelics is that we don’t have psychedelic experiences; we have experiences of ourselves catalyzed by psychedelics. Stan Grof has said that LSD is a “non-specific amplifier of the unconscious,” so that what we experience depends on who we are.

LSD is like dreaming—it’s not uniform content, it’s a way of processing content.

2. Question from SkittleSkitzo: How bad is marijuana for the lungs? Also, is it actually possible to "re-trip" (where you hallucinate years later because its in your spinal fluid) on acid?

Answer from Rick Doblin:

Marijuana does not cause lung cancer, nor does it cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The cannabinoids in marijuana have anti-tumor properties; however, people who smoke marijuana can sometimes get colds and respiratory infections. I think unbiased risk/benefit analysis by the FDA could result in marijuana in smoked form becoming an approved prescription medicine.

LSD is not stored in the spinal fluid and it is not possible to “re-trip” years later. That is entirely a drug war fabrication.

3. Question from Quasarstoquarks: Do you believe that spiritual drug experiences (such as shamanistic rituals involved with ayahuasca) will ever have a place in modern medicine?

Answer from Rick Doblin:

MAPS recently sponsored a study of ayahuasca in the treatment of addiction in British Columbia. Bill W., the founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, took LSD in the 1950s and felt it could play a major role in the treatment of addiction. The spiritual experiences help people to accept themselves, and give people strength. So spiritual experiences will have a place in modern medicine, such as research into LSD for people with anxiety associated with the end of life. Earlier LSD research in the 1960s for cancer patients showed that spiritual experiences were correlated with therapeutic outcomes. Spiritual experiences can occur in a hospital setting as well as in a shamanistic ritual. I think modern psychiatric medicine will increasingly combine psychotherapeutic and spiritual experiences.

4. Question from MDMA_Throw_Away:  My wife and I tried MDMA for the first and only time (so far...) earlier this year. It was the best experience I've ever had on any drug. We expected to be sexing like rabbits but much to my surprise we had a late night of chatting, laughing, and even airing grievances with each other in a way that we both could just accept and talk through. We cried together over things that we routinely did that were hurtful to the other. We had a whole night of connecting with each other like we never had before.

It was downright therapeutic.

I think this would be such an incredible drug for couples that need refocused on each other. What kind of work is being done to make MDMA legal for responsible adults?

Answer from Berra Yazar-Klosinski, Ph.D., lead clinical research associate:

Couples therapy was actually the most common therapeutic use for MDMA before it was placed on Schedule 1 in 1985. However, at present the most effective way to study the risks and benefits of MDMA is to study it as a treatment for a clinically diagnosable psychiatric disorder. After medical use becomes more accepted, it may become possible for additional uses of the medication to be studied.

Here is a related article from a 2011 issue of Elle magazine that you might find interesting.

Answer from Rick Doblin: 

We were recently contacted by a group of European researchers who want to start a study of couples therapy. They are seeking a government grant to complete the study. If accepted, this will be a remarkable study.

As Berra said, we are focused on turning psychedelics into medicine. Relationships aren't diseases. We definitely hope to see this research expand.

Medicine will increasingly combine psychotherapeutic and spiritual experiences.

5. Question fromOceanMan7: I know from experience that a bad trip on psychedelics can be extremely scary and traumatizing. How do you guarantee that your patients have a positive experience?

Answer from Ben Shechet, cilinical study assistant:

There is no guarantee that a psychedelic experience will be 'positive'--in fact, since most of our research subjects are dealing with significant psychological issues in their lives, their experiences can be quite difficult. We make sure that our subjects feel safe and well cared-for within the therapeutic space, and focus on building a strong working alliance between the therapists and subjects. But we also view difficult experiences as moments that carry great potential for healing and growth, and encourage our subjects to enter into those experiences willingly, as they are often the very things that need to be experienced fully in order for the individual to move forward in their life.

6. Question from dennisb230980: What is your opinion about [T]im [L]eary in terms of psycedelic scientific research[?]

Answer from Rick Doblin:

Tim Leary, when he was at Harvard, did incredibly valuable scientific research. The Good Friday Experiment for which he was a faculty sponsor was the first study of psychedelics in spiritual experiences ever conducted. My undergraduate thesis was a 25-year follow-up study to Leary’s study. It was a key to my understanding of the 1960s. The people I interviewed who participated in the original Good Friday Experiment told me that the mystical experience of oneness had important political implications in their lives in that it inspired them to see our commonality more so than our differences, and motivated them to work for social change. When I look back on the 1960s, the backlash from society was more about psychedelics going right and motivating people to challenge the status quo than it was about psychedelic experiences going wrong, though that happened as well. The Good Friday Experiment has motivated almost all of the current psychedelic researchers.

Leary’s Concord Prison Experiment was exceptionally idealistic in trying to show that psychedelic mystical experiences could produce measurable reductions in recidivism. Where I’m not comfortable with Tim Leary is that once he left Harvard he exaggerated the results of the Concord Prison Experiment and ended up sharing false information.

I believe there’s something holy and spiritual about science, and that the results of research need to be shared with the greatest of integrity. I admire Tim, but also feel that he became what he was objecting to: Propaganda against psychedelics in his mind justified propaganda for psychedelics. MAPS is trying to be a leader in research into both the benefits and the risks of psychedelics, and reporting them honestly.

7. Question from Rack3m: What do you see as the next big hurdle for publicly funded research grants?

Answer from Rick Doblin:

NIMH has not funded psychedelic research since the mid-1960s, but we hope that will change over the next few years. We are currently developing a research grant proposal to send to the NIMH in order to move forward with our PTSD research.

We are also in discussion with the VA and DOD about the concept of treating veterans suffering from PTSD with MDMA-assisted psychotherapy. It may take several more years before we engage in a collaborative study and receive government funding.

Currently, all of our research is funded through donations.

8. Question from musicisbelieving85: With the current MDMA research, once that is finished is the expected result to get FDA to approve MDMA psychotherapy or is the plan to do even more research? What's the current expected timetable for making this available for basically anyone that needs help in this way?

Answer from Amy Emerson, director of clinical research:

We are currently in Phase 2 of our clinical trials, this phase gathers preliminary information on the safety and efficacy of the drug to treat the condition under investigation in populations of 12 to 200 subjects. Phase 3 trials gather conclusive evidence regarding efficacy and safety in larger populations of 250 to 2000 subjects. At least two Phase 3 studies are typically required to prove safety and efficacy before permission for prescription use can be approved.

While we are working to complete the Phase 2 studies, Phase 3 planning will start including work to identify a GMP (good manufacturing process) manufacturer of MDMA as well as large scale training of Phase 3 investigators. We anticipate completing the primary end points in our Phase 2 studies in late 2015. We plan to have our End of Phase 2 meeting with FDA in early 2016 and apply for programs to accelerate development. By the end of phase 2 we will know if we have been accepted to any accelerated development programs and will finalize our Phase 3 strategy with FDA.

We estimate we will need to do 2 Phase 3 studies with 200-250 subjects per study across multiple sites, the studies will be conducted in a staggered fashion from 2016-2020. In parallel with this, MAPS will request FDA permission to conduct Expanded Access (Compassionate Use) studies with cost recovery for people who do not qualify for the Phase 3 program. If a drug proves to be safe and efficacious in two Phase 3 studies, the sponsor of the studies submits a New Drug Application (NDA) to the FDA and/or the European Medicines Agency (EMEA), which review the application for possible approval as a prescription medicine. We anticipate the decision regarding MDMA as a prescription medication would occur in 2021.

9. Question from Pipken:  A very recent study by Taurah et al. indicates that MDMA use results in widespread behavioral deficits when compared to other drug users, and that alarmingly, these deficits did not go away even after a prolonged period of abstinence. When taken together with evidence in animal models that any substantial MDMA usage causes irreparable damage of serotonergic neurons, it appears that MDMA use can result in the selective yet permanent death of these neurons even in humans.

What methods have you utilized to minimize the damage and maximize the benefits of these psychedelics in your research trials?

Answer from Ilsa Jerome, Ph.D., clinical research and information specialist:

We have examined the literature on MDMA toxicity over time; there are sections on the matter in our Investigator's Brochure, which is periodically updated.

The recent study features a large sample but is still retrospective (meaning people are measured after they start taking ecstasy) and compares between groups. This makes it similar to 99% of most studies of ecstasy users, and the problem with this is that the method makes it hard to eliminate the other potential points of causation; it's essentially a fancy correlational study with multiple groups. Drug use is poorly matched in this sample.

MAPS studies involve a couple of administration of known MDMA in a therapeutic setting, and so are different from unsupervised use of "ecstasy" in various settings.

We examined cognitive function in our first study of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy in people with PTSD, and we did not find any indicate that receiving MDMA as compared with inactive placebo reduced performance on these tests.

The animal models have long been in question since they are based on interspecies scaling, and this model is not suitable for compounds with nonlinear pharmacokinetics (meaning, a higher dose has a greater effect than expected), and MDMA has nonlinear pharmacokinetics. Hence most rodent and monkey toxicity studies use inappropriately high doses.

We still inform people of the potential risks of toxicity before they take part in MDMA studies, and we leave three to five weeks between each dose.

10. Question from entropico:  What is the single most challenging anti-psychedelic argument used and how do you deal with it?

Answer from Brad Burge:

The single most challenging rational argument against psychedelic research is the claim that by investigating the beneficial potential of these drugs and engaging in public education about the results of that research, we are also encouraging the irresponsible use of the drugs by leading people to believe that they are safe.

There are two simple responses to this question that we have found to be useful: (1) We do not claim that psychedelics, or any drugs, are safe, only that in defined situations their benefits can outweigh their risks; and (2) ultimately, we do encourage the responsible use of psychedelics, though we acknowledge that current prohibitionist and anti-harm reduction policies make those responsible uses more difficult to engage in.

The main resistance encountered by psychedelic research, however, is not rational, but deeply emotional. Decades of cultural paranoia surrounding the use of psychedelics, combined with the suppression of scientific research into their benefits until recently, have traumatized our culture and conditioned many people to fear them. As a result, our main challenge as we work to increase public awareness about the risks and benefits of psychedelics is to find a way through these fears. When you talk to others about psychedelic research or what they can do, remember that they might be afraid. When it comes to communicating about psychedelics, compassion is key.

For more information about scientific research into the medical potential of psychedelics and marijuana, please visit maps.org.